"non-malignant" cases of central airway obstruction

Q: Name at least 5 "non-malignant" causes of central airway obstruction (CAO)? 

Answer:  Commonly, malignancy and foreign bodies are the two major causes come to mind as CAO. But there are many other etiologies which can lead to CAO, including

• tracheobronchomalacia
• tracheal strictures (mostly due to endotracheal or tracheostomy tubes)
•  anastomotic stenoses following a lung transplant
• airway papillomas 
• endobronchial hamartomas
• vascular rings/congenital heart diseases(eg double aortic arch which causes extrinsic compression or malacia) 
• endobronchial infections (eg,  tuberculosis, or histoplasmosis)
• laryngoceles
• airway hematoma due to trauma 
• any other extrinsic compression (eg goiter, or hematoma after central line attempt)
• any inflammatory pathology

#pulmonary

References:

1. Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, Mehta AC. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169:1278. 

2. Blackledge FA, Anand VK. Tracheobronchial extension of recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2000; 109:812. 

3. Cosío BG, Villena V, Echave-Sustaeta J, et al. Endobronchial hamartoma. Chest 2002; 122:202. 

4. An HS, Choi EY, Kwon BS, et al. Airway compression in children with congenital heart disease evaluated using computed tomography. Ann Thorac Surg 2013; 96:2192. 

5. Hoheisel G, Chan BK, Chan CH, et al. Endobronchial tuberculosis: diagnostic features and therapeutic outcome. Respir Med 1994; 88:593. 

6. Kaya G, Ladas A, Howlett D. Laryngocele causing airway obstruction. BMJ 2016; 352:i1368. 

7. Silva FS. Neck haematoma and airway obstruction in a patient with goitre: complication of internal jugular vein cannulation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2003; 47:626.