Definition of Dyspnea

Q: As per American Thoracic Society (ATS), which of the following factor is NOT a part of definition of dyspnea? - select one

A) Anatomical

B) Environmental

C) Physiological

D) Psychological

E) Social

Answer: A

A consensus statement of the American Thoracic Society defines dyspnea as:

"Dyspnea is a term used to characterize a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that is comprised of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity. The experience derives from interactions among multiple physiological, psychological, social, and environmental factors, and may induce secondary physiological and behavioral responses."

It's an important definition to understand the wide spectrum of dyspnea, describing cause and effect. The keywords are: - a "subjective experience", "qualitatively distinct sensations", "vary in intensity", various factors inducing "secondary physiological and behavioral responses."

#pulmonary

#psychology

# environmental-sciences

#social-sciences

Reference:

Parshall MB, Schwartzstein RM, Adams L, et al. An official American Thoracic Society statement: update on the mechanisms, assessment, and management of dyspnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185:435.

A succussion splash, Virchow's node and Sister Mary Joseph's node

Q: With the following three physical findings, what's the diagnosis, if proven otherwise?

• A succussion splash 
• A left Virchow's node
• Sister Mary Joseph's node

Answer: Metastatic gastric cancer

The objective of this question is to emphasize again the most vital art of the medicine - the physical exam.

A succussion splash is elicited by placing the stethoscope over the upper abdomen and rocking the patient back and forth at the hips. There may be a "splash" sound. It signifies Gastric Outlet Obstruction if positive after three hours of the meal. 

Virchow's node is a palpable supraclavicular lymph node, and Sister Mary Joseph's node is a palpable periumbilical lymph node.

* The author of this question highly recommends reading the case report in reference #4.

#oncology

#physical-exam

References:

1. Ferguson CM. Inspection, Auscultation, Palpation, and Percussion of the Abdomen. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990. Chapter 93. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK420/

2. Kobayashi T, Sato R, Kaneko N, Sato J, Kakugawa Y, Funayama Y. [Advanced Gastric Cancer with Virchow's Lymph Node Metastasis-A Long-Term Survival Case]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho. 2024 Aug;51(8):821-823. Japanese. PMID: 39191712.

3. Whang TB, Wang L, Peng DH. Gastric carcinoma of the umbilicus: case report of Sister Mary Joseph nodule. Cutis. 2010 Feb;85(2):90-2. PMID: 20349683.

4. Fill S, Taran A, Schulz HU, Kahl S, Kalinski T, Smith B, Costa SD. Sister Mary Joseph's nodule as the first sign of pregnancy-associated gastric cancer: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2008 Feb 14;14(6):951-3. doi: 10.3748/wjg.14.951. PMID: 18240358; PMCID: PMC2687068.

Premedication in IV Fe infusion

Q: Premedication with diphenhydramine should be given before intravenous (IV) Iron (Fe) transfusion due to the risk of allergic reaction.

A) True

B) False

Answer: B

Surprisingly, and contrary to popular practice, Diphenhydramine before IV Fe infusion is strongly associated with an increased likelihood of an infusion reaction!

In regular IV Fe infusion, no premedication is required. The rules of thumb for premedication prior to IV Fe infusion are:

• history of asthma, 
• inflammatory arthritis,
• more than one drug allergy, or
• Clinician's suspicion of any other underlying disease which may trigger the reaction

Usually, premedication with IV 125 mg of methylprednisolone and an H2 blocker is recommended.

To note, patients with a history of inflammatory arthritis, a dose of IV methylprednisolone, 125 mg followed by 1 mg/kg prednisone per day orally for four days is recommended.

The best prevention against an IV Fe reaction is to infuse slowly and consult with pharmacy to find the formulation with the least risk of reaction. If a reaction occurs, only methylprednisolone is required without any H2 blocker.

#allergy

#elements

References:

1. Barton JC, Barton EH, Bertoli LF, et al. Intravenous iron dextran therapy in patients with iron deficiency and normal renal function who failed to respond to or did not tolerate oral iron supplementation. Am J Med 2000; 109:27.

2. Auerbach M, Chaudhry M, Goldman H, Ballard H. Value of methylprednisolone in prevention of the arthralgia-myalgia syndrome associated with the total dose infusion of iron dextran: a double blind randomized trial. J Lab Clin Med 1998; 131:257.

3. Gómez-Ramírez S, Shander A, Spahn DR, Auerbach M, Liumbruno GM, Vaglio S, Muñoz M. Prevention and management of acute reactions to intravenous iron in surgical patients. Blood Transfus. 2019 Mar;17(2):137-145. doi: 10.2450/2018.0156-18. Epub 2018 Oct 16. PMID: 30418128; PMCID: PMC6476739.

Fosphenytoin and phenytoin

Q: Which statement is true? - Select one

A) Fosphenytoin is the water-soluble prodrug of phenytoin

B) Fosphenytoin is the lipid-soluble prodrug of phenytoin

Answer: A

Fosphenytoin is a water-soluble prodrug that converts into phenytoin. It was created in the hope that it would act faster. It can also be given intramuscularly, which is an advantage when an IV line is not available. It can also be given three times faster, an advantage in status epilepticus scenarios.

Phenytoin carries various risks such as local irritation, tissue necrosis, and "purple glove syndrome", and if given faster, can cause cardiac arrhythmias. Fosphenytoin may negate those risks due to its water solubility.

#pharmacology

#neurology

References:

1. Madhiyazhagan M, Roshan R, Dhanapal SG, Joseph JV, Ganesan P, Mathew V, A Kundavaram PP. Comparison of Phenytoin and Fosphenytoin in Treatment of Active Seizures in the Emergency Department. Neurol India. 2023 May-Jun;71(3):447-452. doi: 10.4103/0028-3886.378665. PMID: 37322738.

2. Aaronson PM, Belgado BS, Spillane JP, Kunisaki TA. Evaluation of intramuscular fosphenytoin vs intravenous phenytoin loading in the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2011 Nov;29(9):983-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2010.05.005. Epub 2010 Aug 3. PMID: 20685063.

3. DeToledo JC, Ramsay RE. Fosphenytoin and phenytoin in patients with status epilepticus: improved tolerability versus increased costs. Drug Saf. 2000 Jun;22(6):459-66. doi: 10.2165/00002018-200022060-00004. PMID: 10877039.

Clopidogrel & PPIs

Q: Which of the following Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) is most likely to decrease the effect of clopidogrel? - select one

A) Lansoprazole

B) Omeprazole

C) Pantoprazole

D) Rabeprazole 

Answer: B

The interaction between clopidogrel and PPIs is overrated. Two ways to minimize this interaction are:

1. Avoid omeprazole, as clopidogrel and omeprazole share hepatic CYP2C19 metabolism. Other PPIs like pantoprazole, lansoprazole, and rabeprazole are less likely to interact. 

2. Taking clopidogrel and PPIs four or more hours apart.

#GI

#pharmacology

References:

1. Axelsson MAB, Parodi López N, Wikström Jonsson E, Wallerstedt SM. Efficacy and Safety of Clopidogrel With and Without a Proton Pump Inhibitor: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2025 Aug;137(2):e70087. doi: 10.1111/bcpt.70087. PMID: 40685887; PMCID: PMC12277936.

2. Juurlink DN. Proton pump inhibitors and clopidogrel: putting the interaction in perspective. Circulation 2009; 120:2310.

HIV and OB transmission

Q: Antiretroviral use during pregnancy, at the time of delivery, and breastfeeding can eliminate the chances of HIV transmission by? - select one

A) about 50%

B) almost 100%

Answer: A

Over the years, antiretroviral therapy (ART) has become more of a preventive drug than a treatment. Interestingly and fortunately, use of ART during pregnancy, at the time of delivery, and breastfeeding can eliminate transmission almost 100%. 

The sad part is that the data up to 2024 showed that 1.4 million children under 15 years of age were living with HIV globally. And in resource-limited but high-burden countries, like Angola, Chad, and Nigeria, less than 50 percent of the pregnant or breastfeeding women living with HIV are receiving antiretroviral medicines.

#epidemiology

#ID

#Ob-gyn

References: 

1. Eke AC, Lockman S, Mofenson LM. Antiretroviral Treatment of HIV/AIDS During Pregnancy. JAMA. 2023 Apr 18;329(15):1308-1309. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.5076. PMID: 37010862; PMCID: PMC10390091.

2. Short WR, Lowenthal ED, Momplaisir F, Powis KM, Scott RK, Yee LM, Miller ES, Mofenson LM. HIV and Pregnancy: Navigating Complex Decision Making and Preventing Perinatal Transmission. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2025 Jun 7;22(1):36. doi: 10.1007/s11904-025-00745-0. PMID: 40481940; PMCID: PMC12145298.

3. Fleșeriu T, Meliț LE, Mărginean CO, Pop AV, Văsieșiu AM. Maternal HIV Infection and Antiretroviral Therapy in Pregnancy: Implications for Vertical Transmission, Fetal Safety, and Long-Term Infant Outcomes. Pathogens. 2025 Aug 19;14(8):818. doi: 10.3390/pathogens14080818. PMID: 40872328; PMCID: PMC12389244.

Sarcoid and IBD

Q: Sarcoidosis seems to have a greater tendency to exist with which of the following gastrointestinal immune/inflammatory disorders? - select one

A) Crohn disease

B) Ulcerative colitis

Answer: A

Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid lymphocytosis, elevated CD4/CD8 lymphocyte ratios, and nonnecrotizing granulomas in the lungs can be seen in both disorders, suggesting a possible common pathogenic mechanism between the two diseases. 

It is important to differentiate between coexistence of both disorders from pure intestinal sarcoidosis. Other manifestations of Crohn disease include pyoderma gangrenosum, rectal and perianal lesions, and enterocutaneous fistulas. Also, intestinal sarcoidosis usually involves only the mucosa, whereas Crohn disease can be transmural, with crypt inflammation, aphthae, and ulcers.

The concurrence of sarcoidosis and ulcerative colitis is rare.

#GI

References:

1. Mitchell DN, Rees RJ. Sarcoidosis and Crohn's disease. Proc R Soc Med 1971; 64:944.

2. D'Ercole C, Zullo A, Bragazzi MC, Campo SM. Sarcoidosis and coeliac disease: do not forget the association! Intern Emerg Med 2012; 7 Suppl 1:S25.

3. Mills K, Fatima S, Fas N. Crohn's Disease Diagnosed in a Man with Sarcoidosis: Coincidence or Correspondence? Case Rep Gastrointest Med. 2022 May 27;2022:5943468. doi: 10.1155/2022/5943468. PMID: 35669381; PMCID: PMC9166977.

Risk factors for CAPS

Q: In patients with antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL), which of the following carries the highest risk for Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS)? - select one

A) Active systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

B) Cancer 

C) Infection

D) Pregnancy (or postpartum)

E) Surgery 

Answer: C

Contrary to conventional belief that estrogen use, pregnancy, postpartum, or active systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are the highest risk factors for CAPS, infection carries about 10 times more chances of bringing CAPS in patients with aPL or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).

Above all, in its acute phase, infection (choice C) is the highest thrombotic risk. Another well-known reason for CAPS still stays valid, i.e., inadequate anticoagulation in a patient with known APS.

#rheumatology

References:

1. Cervera R, Rodríguez-Pintó I, Legault K, Erkan D. 16th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies Task Force Report on Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome. Lupus 2020; 29:1594.

2. Stammler R, Nguyen Y, Yelnik C, et al. Precipitating factors of catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: the role of anticoagulant treatment in a series of 112 patients. J Thromb Haemost 2023; 21:1258.

ECMO and HCPS

Q: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has shown no survival benefit in Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome (HCPS) and should be considered only when death seems to be the probable outcome.

A) True

B) False

Answer: B

Early insertion of vascular sheaths and preemptive cannulation are associated with a higher survival rate, up to 65-80%, in HCPS. Mortality seems to increase once hemodynamic instability occurs later in the course.

Evidence showed that if a cardiac index remained below 2.5 L/minute/m2 despite volume, pressor, and inotropic support, ECMO should be pursued early in the course. 

Interestingly, ECMO in HCPS has been known to be beneficial for the last three decades (reference #1).

#hemodynamics

#ID

References:

1. Crowley MR, Katz RW, Kessler R, et al. Successful treatment of adults with severe Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:409.

2. Wernly JA, Dietl CA, Tabe CE, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support improves survival of patients with Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome refractory to medical treatment. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2011; 40:1334.

3. Yao H, McDonald EG. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for the treatment of severe refractory hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome. CMAJ 2016; 188:E528.

Hyperparathyroid crisis

Q: What are the three major causes of parathyroid crisis, also known as hypercalcemic crisis?

Answer: Parathyroid or hyperparathyroid crisis is clinically marked by severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, peptic ulcer, pancreatitis, and, in particular, central nervous system dysfunction. 

The diagnosis relies on serum calcium concentration usually above 15 mg/dL and serum PTH 20 times the upper limit of normal. Concomitant bone disease and nephrolithiasis are usually present.

The three major causes are:

1. severe illness

2. volume depletion

3. infarction of a parathyroid adenoma

#endocrinology

References:

1. Ahmad S, Kuraganti G, Steenkamp D. Hypercalcemic crisis: a clinical review. Am J Med 2015; 128:239.

2. Muntaser A, Thelen A, Sehgal AR, McHenry CR. Hyperparathyroid crisis: Characteristics and outcomes. Am J Surg. 2023 Mar;225(3):477-480. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2022.10.028. Epub 2022 Oct 18. PMID: 36307336.

3. Bondeson AG, Bondeson L, Thompson NW. Clinicopathological peculiarities in parathyroid disease with hypercalcaemic crisis. Eur J Surg 1993; 159:613.

yellow fever vaccine and immunocompromised hosts

Q: A 52-year-old male recovering in the ICU after a heart-kidney transplant announces he will travel to South Africa to celebrate his successful outcome and freedom from dialysis. He asks the intensivist for advice, who advises against such travel as he may need to take the yellow fever vaccine. Why should the yellow fever vaccine ideally be avoided in immunocompromised hosts?

Answer: It contains a live attenuated viral strain 

Ideally, immunocompromised travelers due to any underlying disease process (such as asplenia or thymic dysfunction) or drugs (such as steroids) should avoid the yellow fever vaccine, or wait 4-12 weeks after stopping such drugs. It contains a live attenuated viral strain. Experts even advise omitting such travel to endemic areas and even accepting deportation instead of accepting the yellow fever vaccine if forced on arrival. If absolutely required, peak season should be avoided.

Some patients who are on TNF-alpha inhibitors, interleukin-1– and interleukin-6–blocking agents, immunosuppressive monoclonal antibodies targeting immune cells, alkylating drugs, and antimetabolites may not be aware of underlying risk. Similarly, patients with asplenia, renal failure, chronic liver disease, advanced HIV, diabetes, myasthenia gravis, thymoma, or prior thymectomy are at particular risk.

Fatal myeloencephalitis or yellow fever vaccine–associated viscerotropic disease may occur.

#ID

References:

1. Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58:e44.

2. Cetron MS, Marfin AA, Julian KG, et al. Yellow fever vaccine. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2002. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002; 51:1.

3. Mileno M. Preparation of Immunocompromised Travelers. In: Travel Medicine, 1st ed, Keystone JS, Freedman DP, Nothdurft HD, Connor BA (Eds), Mosby, Edinburgh 2004. p.249.

4. Kengsakul K, Sathirapongsasuti K, Punyagupta S. Fatal myeloencephalitis following yellow fever vaccination in a case with HIV infection. J Med Assoc Thai 2002; 85:131.

VAS in COPD

Q: What does VAS stand for in the Rome criteria for COPD exacerbation?

Answer: Visual Analog Scale (VAS)

The Rome criteria for COPD is designed to simplify the classification of respiratory symptoms during exacerbations into mild, moderate, or severe. It consists of the following parameters:

1. Visual Analog Scale (VAS) at a scale of 0 to 10

2. Respiratory Rate (RR)

3. Heart Rate (HR)

4. Oxygen Saturation (SaO₂): Resting levels on room air or baseline oxygen

5. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) as a blood marker for systemic inflammation (mg/L)

Evaluation of arterial Blood Gases (ABG) has also been included if available.

Initially, it was designed for outpatient settings, but experts now believe it can also be used in inpatient settings. A couple of examples of the utility of this score are prescribing glucocorticoids for a moderate exacerbation of COPD or admission to the ICU for mechanical ventilation.

Full classification can be obtained via any search engine or AI portal.

#pulmonary

References:

1. Celli BR, Fabbri LM, Aaron SD, et al. An Updated Definition and Severity Classification of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Exacerbations: The Rome Proposal. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2021; 204:1251.

2. Cometa M, Ursitti A, Lombardo LP, Rana R, Gardani A, Contoli M, Papi A. Can the Rome classification of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation severity be applied in the hospital setting? Respir Med. 2024 Feb;222:107509. doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2023.107509. Epub 2023 Dec 24. PMID: 38145723.

3. Zeng J, Zhou C, Yi Q, Luo Y, Wei H, Ge H, Liu H, Zhang J, Li X, Pan P, Yi M, Cheng L, Liu L, Zhang J, Peng L, Pu J, Zhou H; MAGNET AECOPD Registry Investigators. Validation of the Rome Severity Classification of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Exacerbation: A Multicenter Cohort Study. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2024 Jan 17;19:193-204. doi: 10.2147/COPD.S442382. PMID: 38249828; PMCID: PMC10800102.

extraintestinal site has the highest propensity for nntyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia

Q: Which of the following extraintestinal sites has the highest propensity for nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia? - select one

A) Heart valves

B) Endovascular  

C) Meninges 

D) Bone

E) Pancreas 

Answer: B

Nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia has a propensity to localize to atherosclerotic or pre-existing vascular disease in large vessels, particularly in older and immunosuppressed patients. 

The infrarenal aorta is the most frequent site of vascular infection. Other common sites include the thoracic aorta and other central arterial sites, characterized by fever (usually subacute), abdominal pain, and back pain, and are associated with relapsing or prolonged Salmonella bacteremia.

CNS infections are followed by endovascular infection, particularly in children. Other sites, as mentioned in the question above, are also possible but rare.

#ID

References:

1. Hsu RB, Lin FY. Risk factors for bacteraemia and endovascular infection due to non-typhoid salmonella: a reappraisal. QJM 2005; 98:821.

2. Benenson S, Raveh D, Schlesinger Y, et al. The risk of vascular infection in adult patients with nontyphi Salmonella bacteremia. Am J Med 2001; 110:60.

3. Chen SY, Weng TH, Tseng WP, et al. Value of blood culture time to positivity in identifying complicated nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 91:210.

Delafloxacin

Q: Delafloxacin is a? - select one

A) tetracycline

B) fluoroquinolone

Answer: B

The objective of this question is to make students aware of one of the relatively unknown but potent antibiotics. Delafloxacin is a fluoroquinolone approved for the treatment of bacterial skin and soft tissue infections. 

It has broad-spectrum activity, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (though some resistance has already been reported), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacteriaceae, and Clostridioides difficile.

#pharmacology

#ID

References:

1. Candel FJ, Peñuelas M. Delafloxacin: design, development and potential place in therapy. Drug Des Devel Ther 2017; 11:881.

2. Saravolatz LD, Stein GE. Delafloxacin: A New Anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Fluoroquinolone. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:1058.

3. Iregui A, Khan Z, Malik S, et al. Emergence of Delafloxacin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Brooklyn, New York. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 70:1758.

4. O'Riordan W, McManus A, Teras J, et al. A Comparison of the Efficacy and Safety of Intravenous Followed by Oral Delafloxacin With Vancomycin Plus Aztreonam for the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Skin and Skin Structure Infections: A Phase 3, Multinational, Double-Blind, Randomized Study. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:657.

DBS and Diathermy

Q: A 68-year-old male is recovering from community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the ICU. Patient has a Deep Brain Stimulator (DBS) implanted for his Parkinson's Disease. The patient's DBS is MRI-compatible and has had no issues in the past with his cardiac pacemaker. A physical therapist (PT) inquired with you about using diathermy for the patient to relieve his chronic muscle pain. Diathermy in a DBS patient can be used safely.

A) Yes

B) No

Answer: B

In the last few years, most DBSs have become MRI-compatible and can be safely inserted in patients with a cardiac pacemaker, though rechecking with the patient's home info packet is always needed prior to any such intervention.

Unfortunately, DBSs are incompatible with diathermy, which is frequently used during physical therapy sessions (and by chiropractors). Diathermy, as the name suggests, delivers heat to soft tissue using electrical energy. It increases blood circulation, decreases pain, and improves healing. Diathermy induces a radiofrequency current that may cause heating of the DBS electrodes and may cause life-threatening or disabling injury to the brain.

#procedures

References:

1. Capelle HH, Simpson RK Jr, Kronenbuerger M, et al. Long-term deep brain stimulation in elderly patients with cardiac pacemakers. J Neurosurg 2005; 102:53.

2. Nutt JG, Anderson VC, Peacock JH, et al. DBS and diathermy interaction induces severe CNS damage. Neurology 2001; 56:1384.

3. Boutet A, Chow CT, Narang K, Elias GJB, Neudorfer C, Germann J, Ranjan M, Loh A, Martin AJ, Kucharczyk W, Steele CJ, Hancu I, Rezai AR, Lozano AM. Improving Safety of MRI in Patients with Deep Brain Stimulation Devices. Radiology. 2020 Aug;296(2):250-262. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2020192291. Epub 2020 Jun 23. PMID: 32573388; PMCID: PMC7543718.

Body organ involved in IgAN besides kidney

Q: Which organ in the body may be related to IgA Nephropathy (IgN)? - select one

A) Adrenal gland

B) Brain

C) Cardia

D) Liver

E) Tonsils

Answer: E

Tonsillitis has been associated with hematuria and proteinuria in IgAN. Tonsils are considered a source of abnormal IgA that forms immune complexes and deposits in the glomeruli.

Although theoretically tonsillectomy can cure IgAN, there is limited evidence for this treatment; however, combining tonsillectomy with immunosuppressive therapy may be relatively more beneficial.

#nephrology

#immunology

References:

1. Hotta O, Miyazaki M, Furuta T, et al. Tonsillectomy and steroid pulse therapy significantly impact on clinical remission in patients with IgA nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38:736.

2. Akagi H, Kosaka M, Hattori K, et al. Long-term results of tonsillectomy as a treatment for IgA nephropathy. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 2004; :38.

3. Kochoyan ZS, Dobronravov VA. Tonsillectomy and immunosuppression improve outcomes in Caucasians with high-risk IgA nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2026; 41:1284.

4. Rasche FM, Schwarz A, Keller F. Tonsillectomy does not prevent a progressive course in IgA nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 1999; 51:147.